EU Historical Dynamics

May

Current Issues

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Categories: Current Issues

the Stability and Growth Pact, which has been called “stupid” and “rigid” by former EU Commission President Romano Prodi, are deeply flawed, and therefore urgently need to be revised.[3] Recently the EU Court of Justice ruled on this issue in favour of the EU Commission, deciding the finance ministers’ decision to annul the sanctions was unlawful.

Another issue is the application for EU membership of Turkey. On 16-17 December 2004, at the Council summit of EU leaders in Brussels, Turkey finally won its reward for “decisive progress” in reforming its economy and improving its domestic human rights situation: a target date of 3 December 2005 for opening accession negotiations. [4]. Nonetheless, there is still significant concern about Turkey’s suitability as a member, for political, cultural and economic reasons. There’s also a question of its continuing disputes with Greece and Cyprus.

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May

History of European Integration

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Categories: European Integration

One of the first crises affecting the course of European integration occurred in 1965. A switch away from unanimous decision-making and to majority-voting in the Council was supposed to have been made on January 1, 1966. However the De Gaulle government of France was firmly opposed to this, seeking that all discussions on decisions affecting national interests should be discussed indefinitely, essentially requiring the retention of national veto on all issues of importance. This led to the “empty chair crisis” in which France refused to take its seat in the Council for a six month period starting in July 1965. Finally the Luxembourg compromise of January 1966 resolved the crisis by acknowledging the disagreement and beginning a de facto situation where each member-state could wield a veto on matters it deemed of “national importance”. In effect this meant member-states could use a veto, but only sparingly. This was a political gentlemen’s agreement and not a treaty modification.

The three European Communities have always had identical memberships and similar institutional structures. Originally they shared the Court of Justice and Parliament in common, having separate Councils and Commissions (called the High Authority in the case of the ECSC); but the Merger Treaty of July 1969 merged their Councils and Commissions into a single Council and Commission. A customs union was established in 1968.

The first direct elections for the European Parliament were held in 1979, after a decision to that effect was first adopted in 1976 and ratified in 1978. The elected, full-time parliament soon became a forum for ideas on reforming the Communities into a more developed Union, with a stronger role for the Parliament itself. In 1984, on an initiative of Altiero Spinelli, it adopted a “Draft Treaty establishing a European Union”, which set out a global reform project which was not adopted as such by governments, but in practice implemented in stages through several treaty revisions over the next few years.

Indeed, the governments had in principle agreed to transform the European Communities into the European Union in the Solemn Declaration on European Union (also known as the Stuttgart Declaration), of 19 June 1983.

After French President Mitterrand endorsed the European Parliament’s proposed treaty of Union in a dramatic reversal of French policy in 1985, negotiations began among Member States on a new treaty. In 1986 the Single European Act was signed, the first step towards the single European market. At the same it formally introduced the concept of European Political Cooperation.

In 1992, the Maastricht treaty was signed, which at the same time modified the Treaty of Rome. It established the European Union, turning the European Communities into the EU’s so-called “first-pillar”, and adding two further pillars of cooperation, on Common Foreign and Security Policy and on Justice and Home Affairs. At the same time it established Economic and Monetary Union as a formal objective. The Maastricht treaty came into force in 1993.

The European Economic Area was founded in 1994 in order to allow EFTA countries to participate in the Single Market without having to join the EU.

In 1997, the Treaty of Amsterdam was signed, which updated the Maastricht treaty and aimed to make the EU more democratic.

In January 1999, eleven countries (Austria, the Benelux countries, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Portugal and Spain) agreed to join the euro and abandon their existing currencies. Greece joined two years later, in January 2001, bringing the members of the eurozone to twelve. On January 1, 2002, Euro notes and coins entered circulation. Slovenia, the Eurozone’s thirteenth member, joined in January 2007. The Euro is going through a credibility crisis in several member states, in spite of its rebouncing against the dollar since 2002. According to the OECD, national governments are to blame partially for this popularity dip, as they tend to use the single currency as a scapegoat for more structural problems haunting the zone’s economies.

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May

2007

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Categories: Enlargement of the EU

Bulgaria and Romania completed negotiation talks on December 14, 2004 and joined the Union on January 1, 2007. The Treaty of Accession of Bulgaria and Romania was signed on April 25, 2005, in Luxembourg giving the legislative bodies of the 25 EU-member states a year and a half to ratify the treaties.

On May 11, 2005 the Bulgarian National Assembly ratified the Treaty of Accession with the European Union. Two votes were held by the 240 member Parliament.

First reading: 230 - “in favour”, 1 - “against” and 2 - “abstentions”
Second reading: 231 - “in favour”, 1 - “against” and 2 - “abstentions”

On May 17, 2005 a joint session of the Romanian Senate and Chamber of Deputies ratified the Treaty of Accession with the European Union. The vote was held by the 469 member upper and lower houses.

Results: 434 - “in favour”, 0 - “against” and 0 - “abstentions”

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May

2004

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Categories: Enlargement of the EU

The European Commission’s Strategic Report of October 9, 2002 recommended 10 candidate members for inclusion in the EU in 2004: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia, Malta and Cyprus. Their combined population is roughly 75 million; their combined Gross Domestic Product was about 840 billion US dollars (purchasing power parity; CIA World Factbook 2003), similar in size to that of Spain.

While the EU has enlarged several times in the past, never before had an enlargement round included so many countries and with such strikingly different levels of economic and domestic political development, not to mention different historical and cultural backgrounds. Many of the candidates had only just begun building democracies and had not finalised their transition to a market economy. Culturally and linguistically, this enlargement greatly increased the number of languages spoken within the EU, reflecting the increased cultural heterogeneity and level of diversity in the EU. Also, although several of the previous enlargement rounds in EU history have included the accession of countries whose average GDP per capita was lower than that of the EU’s, never had the difference been this great nor had the enlargement included so many countries.

This could therefore be called one of the most ambitious enlargements of the European Union yet. On the side of the European Union it was partly motivated by a desire to reunite Europe after the end of the Cold War, and an effort to tie Eastern Europe firmly to the West in order to prevent it falling again into communism or dictatorship.

The first stage of negotiations took place among the then current 15 member states when they agreed upon a common negotiating position regarding the terms of accession with which to approach the candidates. The second stage of negotiations occurred between the EU and the candidate states, when these terms were discussed and revised.

Cyprus was made a candidate for admission. When a number of members refused to accept the island unless the problems with Turkey be solved, Greece threatened to veto the enlargement unless Cyprus was also allowed to be a part of it. The prospect of membership for the island also led to a significant (but eventually failed) push for reunification through the Annan Plan for Cyprus.

After negotiations between the candidates and the member states, the final decision to invite these nations to join was announced on December 13, 2002 in Copenhagen, with the European Parliament voting in favour of this on April 9, 2003.

On April 16, 2003 the Treaty of Accession was signed by the 10 new members and the 15 old ones in Athens. [1].

The final remaining step was the ratification of the treaty by the current member states and by each of the candidate nations. Ratification in the former was done by the parliaments of the member states alone, whereas in the latter the ratification was first subject to a referendum, except for Cyprus where the parliament was solely responsible. The 2003 referenda dates (in four of the countries, a two-day ballot is held), and the outcomes in each of the candidate countries, are as follows:

Malta - 54% in favour (March 8, 2003)
Slovenia - 90% in favour (March 23, 2003)
Hungary - 83% in favour (April 12, 2003)
Lithuania - 91% in favour (May 10-May 11, 2003)
Slovakia - 92% in favour (May 16-May 17, 2003)
Poland - 77% in favour (June 7-June 8, 2003)
Czech Republic - 77% in favour (June 13-June 14, 2003)
Estonia - 67% in favour (September 14, 2003)
Latvia - 67% in favour (September 20, 2003)

In the event that one of the referenda did not return an affirmative result, provision had been made for the enlargement to carry on without that country. However, the referenda results were all in favour of joining, ratification proceeded without problems and the candidate countries became full members of the EU on May 1, 2004.

The eight countries formerly in Eastern Europe (Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia) are together known as the A8 countries. People from these countries were viewed as more likely to emigrate as their residents were generally poorer than other EU countries’ residents. As it was viewed that this could place additional burdens on social welfare and labour markets in richer countries, some additional restrictions were placed on A8 nationals’ rights to work and claim welfare benefits.

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May

1995

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Categories: Enlargement of the EU

The 1994 referenda on membership were as follows:

Austria - 66.6% in favour (June 12); application submitted in July 1989
Finland - 56.9% in favour (October 16); application submitted in March 1992 (separate referendum held in Åland)
Sweden - 52.8% in favour (November 13); application submitted in July 1991
Norway - 47.8% in favour (November 28); application submitted in December 1992

Austria, Sweden and Finland (with Åland) were admitted on January 1, 1995. As the referendum in Norway was 52.2% against joining, the proposal by the Norwegian government to join was rejected for the second time.

With the departure of Austria, Sweden and Finland to the EU, only Norway, Iceland, Switzerland and Liechtenstein remain members of the EFTA.

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May

1980s

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Categories: Enlargement of the EU

The Copenhagen criteria are the rules that define whether a nation is eligible to join the European Union. The Criteria require that an applicant state have the institutions to forward and preserve democratic governance, human rights, a functioning coordinated market economy, and accept the obligations and intent of the EU. These membership Criteria were drawn and established at the June 1993 European Council in Copenhagen, Denmark.

Excerpt from the Copenhagen Presidency conclusions:

“Membership requires that the candidate country has achieved stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights and respect for and, protection of minorities, the existence of a functioning market economy as well as the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the Union. Membership presupposes the candidate’s ability to take on the obligations of membership including adherence to the aims of political, economic and monetary union.”

Most of these elements have been enshrined over the last decade by legislation of the European Council, the European Commission and the European Parliament, as well as by the jurisprudence of the European Court of Justice and the European Court of Human Rights.

During the negotiations with each candidate country, progress towards meeting the Copenhagen Criteria is regularly monitored. On the basis of this, decisions are made as to whether and when a particular country should join, or what actions need to be taken before membership realisation.

The Copenhagen Criteria are divided into three groups — geographic, political and economic.

The Criteria are held in a lengthy, eighty thousand-page document. An example of the broad over arching changes the Criteria dictates is illustrated by the fact that it will take Turkey a minimum of 10 years to implement all 80 000 pages.

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May

1973

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Categories: Enlargement of the EU

In January 1960, Britain and other OEEC members who didn’t belong to the EEC formed an alternative association, the European Free Trade Association. But Britain soon realised that the EEC was more successful than the EFTA and decided to apply for membership. Ireland and Denmark, both of whom being heavily reliant on British trade, decided they would go wherever Britain went, and hence also applied to join the Community. Norway also applied at this time.

The first application occurred in August 1961 under the Conservative government of Harold Macmillan, who was more favourable to Britain joining the EEC than his predecessors. Negotiations started in November 1961 and a provisional agreement was reached in July 1962. However, Britain’s membership was vetoed by French president Charles De Gaulle in January 1963 (all EEC founding members had this right). Officially, De Gaulle said that Britain was not sufficiently European-minded yet to break away from the Commonwealth and accept a common agricultural policy. But other reasons include Britain’s close relationship with the US in terms of defence (see Nassau agreement) and De Gaulle’s fear that Britain’s membership would be followed by many other countries joining the EEC, thus making the community lose its cohesion. De Gaulle refused an “Atlantic” Europe. As a result, the whole negotiations with the four countries broke off.

The second application occurred under the Labour government of Harold Wilson. Wilson said in January 1966 that Britain was ready to apply for EEC membership if essential British interests were safeguarded. Negotiations started on May 1967 with the four countries but De Gaulle once again used his veto in September 1967. Officially, De Gaulle said that Britain had to improve its economy but he actually still feared that Britain would act as the US Trojan horse. The whole negotiation broke off once again, and it seemed that Britain wouldn’t be able to join the EEC as long as De Gaulle was president.

The third and last application occurred after De Gaulle resigned in 1969 and was replaced by Georges Pompidou. In October 1969, the European Commission asked for new negotiations concerning the applications of the four countries. In November 1969, during a meeting of the foreign ministers of the EC (EEC, ECSC and Euratom had merged into the EC in 1967), French minister Maurice Schumann declared that France would agree to Britain’s membership if questions of agricultural finance were settled first. (Then as now the Common Agricultural Policy - for which Britain would have to contribute far more than it would receive from the common fund - was such a contentious issue that it was considered necessary to force Britain to agree to it in its current form as a condition of membership.) Negotiations started in June 1970 under the Conservative government of Edward Heath, who was one of the most strongly pro-European politicians in Britain. Britain agreed to the conditions of the EC: Britain had to accept the Merger Treaty and all decisions taken since the second application, and resolve its problem of adaptation, i.e. conflicts between the EC and the Commonwealth. Finally, Britain joined successfully on January 1, 1973. In 1972, Ireland (application from July 1961), Denmark (application from August 1961), Norway (application from April 1962) held referenda on whether to join. The results were:

Ireland - 83.1% in favour (May 10) (see also: Third Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland)
Norway - 46.5% in favour (September 25)
Denmark - 63.3% in favour (October 2)

Following the rejection by the Norwegian electorate (53.5% against), Norway did not join, an event that was to be repeated again twenty years later, when the government proposed joining along with Austria, Sweden and Finland.

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May

The Three Communities

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Categories: After the First World War

The European Union grew out of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The latter institution, created by the Treaty of Paris in 1951, had six founding members: Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg (the Benelux countries), West Germany, France and Italy. Its purpose was to pool the steel and coal resources of the member states under supranational authority, rendering another European war technically impossible while simultaneously spurring economic development. The ECSC was the brainchild of French civil servant Jean Monnet and was publicised by the French foreign minister Robert Schuman. On May 9, 1950 Schuman presented his proposal for the creation of an integrated Europe, stating that it was indispensable to the maintenance of peaceful relations. This proposal, known as the “Schuman Declaration“, is considered to be the beginning of the creation of what is now the European Union, which later chose to celebrate May 9 as Europe Day. The British were invited to participate in it, but refused on grounds of national sovereignty; thus the six went ahead alone (Text of the Schuman Declaration: http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/9-may/decl_en.htm , Video of the Schuman Declaration: http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=15836).

Further efforts towards integration were immediately undertaken following the success of the ECSC. Encouraged by the United States, an attempt was made to create a European Defence Community (EDC) and a European Political Community (EPC). The EDC called for no less than the creation of a common European army, with joint high command. Its purpose was to allow troops to be raised from Germany (to face the Soviet threat) while overcoming French fears of German rearmament. The purpose of the EPC was to establish a federation of European states - replete with a bicameral parliament, executive organ, and a European Court. These attempts proved overambitious. In 1954 the French National Assembly refused to ratify the EDC treaty, which led to its abandonment; after the failure of the EDC treaty, the EPC, too, was quietly shelved. Nonetheless, the ideas behind both institutions lived on - as testified by later developments such as European Political Co-operation (also called EPC), the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) “pillar” established by the Maastricht treaty, and the European Rapid Reaction Force currently in formation.

The Treaty of Rome signing ceremony - 1957

Despite the failure of the EDC and EPC, the six founding members soon tried again to further their integration. The next major milestone was the founding of the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), both through the Treaty of Rome of 1957 (implemented January 1, 1958). The purpose of the EEC was to establish a customs union among the six founding members, based on the “four freedoms”: freedom of movement of goods, services, capital and people. Euratom was created to pool the non-military nuclear resources of the states. Of the three institutions now extant - the ECSC, the EEC, and Euratom - the EEC was by far the most important, so much so that it was later renamed simply the European Community (EC).

The growth of these European Communities into what is currently the European Union can be said to consist of two parallel processes — first their structural evolution and institutional change into a tighter bloc with more competences given to the supranational level, which can be called the process of European integration or the deepening of the Union. The other is the enlargement of the European Communities (and later European Union) from 6 to 27 member states, which is also called the widening of the Union.

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May

Post 1945 Impetus

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Categories: After WWII

The disastrous course of World War II and the high death toll, gave a strong impetus to plans for some form of union of states in Europe, to prevent future wars and facilitate post-war reconstruction. At the same time, the division of Europe between two rival blocs limited these proposals in effect to western Europe. Public support for some form of European federation or government did emerge, but came to be associated with western Europe. Although he was careful to exclude the United Kingdom from his expostulation, in September 1946, Winston Churchill gave a speech at the University of Zürich, calling for a “United States of Europe”, employing the term French writer Victor Hugo had used nearly a century earlier to invoke an image of a federalized Europe that would be similar to the United States of America. The principal result of this speech was the formation of the Council of Europe in 1949. The Council of Europe however was (and still remains) a rather restricted organization, like a regional equivalent of the United Nations (though it has developed some powers in the area of human rights, through the European Court of Human Rights.)

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May

Impact of the Second World War

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Categories: WWII

In 1940, following Germany’s military successes in World War II and planning for the creation of a thousand year Empire, a European confederation was proposed by German economists and industrialists. They argued for a “European economic community”, with a customs union and fixed internal exchange rates. In 1943, the German ministers Joachim von Ribbentrop and Cecil von Renthe-Fink eventually proposed the creation of a European confederacy, which would have had a single currency, a central bank in Berlin, a regional principle, a labour policy and economic and trading agreements. The proposed countries to be included were Germany, Italy, France, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia, Serbia, Greece and Spain. Such a German-led Europe, it was hoped, would serve as a strong alternative to the Communist Soviet Union. The later Foreign Minister Arthur Seyss-Inquart said: “The new Europe of solidarity and co-operation among all its people will find rapidly increasing prosperity once national economic boundaries are removed”, while the Vichy French Minister Jacques Benoist-Mechin said that France had to “abandon nationalism and take place in the European community with honour.” These pan-European illusions from the early 1940s were never realised because of Germany’s defeat. Neither Hitler, nor many of his leading hierarchs such as Goebbels, had the slightest intention of compromising absolute German hegemony through the creation of a European confederation. Although this fact has been used to insinuate the charge of fascism in the EU, the idea is much older than the Nazis, foreseen by John Maynard Keynes, and later Winston Churchill and various anti-Nazi resistance movements.^[1] Indeed, the founders of the post-war movements for European unity were firmly anti-fascist and emphasised that unity must be based on democracy and partnership, not domination and conquest.

In Britain the group known as Federal Union was launched in November 1938, and began advocating a Federal Union of Europe as a post-war aim. Its papers and arguments became well known among resistants to fascism across Europe and contributed to their thinking of how to rebuild Europe after the war.

Jean Monnet, (1888 – 1979), regarded by many as the architect of European Unity

One of the most influential figures in this process was Altiero Spinelli, co-author with Ernesto Rossi of the “Ventotene Manifesto” entitled “Towards a Free and United Europe” and smuggled out of their internment camp - the island of Ventotene - as early as 1941, well before the outcome of the war was safely predictable, and widely circulated in the resistance movements. Spinelli, Rossi and some 20 others established, as soon as they were able to leave their internment camp, the Movimento Federalista Europeo (MFE). The founding meeting, held in clandestinity in Milan on the 27/28 August 1943, adopted a “political thesis” which, inter alia, stated: “if a post war order is established in which each State retains its complete national sovereignty, the basis for a Third World War would still exist even after the Nazi attempt to establish the domination of the German race in Europe has been frustrated”.

In 1943, Jean Monnet a member of the National Liberation Committee of the Free French government in exile in Algiers, and regarded by many as the future architect of European unity, is recorded as declaring to the committee: “There will be no peace in Europe, if the states are reconstituted on the basis of national sovereignty… The countries of Europe are too small to guarantee their peoples the necessary prosperity and social development. The European states must constitute themselves into a federation…”

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The Three Communities

02/05/07 0 comments
The European Union grew out of the (ECSC). The latter institution, created by the in 1951, had six founding members: , the and (the countries), , and . Its purpose was to pool the steel and coal resources of the member states under supranational authority, rendering another European war technically impossible while simultaneously spurring economic development. The ECSC was the brainchild of French civil servant and was publicised by the French foreign minister . On , Schuman presented his proposal for the creation of an integrated Europe, stating that it was indispensable to the maintenance of peaceful relations. This proposal, known as the "", is considered to be the beginning of the creation of what is now the European Union, which later chose to celebrate as . The British were invited to participate in it, but refused on grounds of national sovereignty; thus the six went ahead alone (Text of the Schuman Declaration: , Video of the Schuman Declaration: ). Further efforts towards integration were immediately undertaken following the success of the ECSC. Encouraged by the United States, an attempt was made to create a (EDC) and a (EPC). The EDC called for no less than the creation of a common European army, with joint high command. Its purpose was to allow troops to be raised from Germany (to face the Soviet threat) while overcoming French fears of German rearmament. The purpose of the EPC was to establish a federation of European states - replete with a bicameral parliament, executive organ, and a European Court. These attempts proved overambitious. In 1954 the refused to ratify the EDC treaty, which led to its abandonment; after the failure of the EDC treaty, the EPC, too, was quietly shelved. Nonetheless, the ideas behind both institutions lived on - as testified by later developments such as European Political Co-operation (also called EPC), the (CFSP) "pillar" established by the , and the currently in formation.

The Treaty of Rome signing ceremony - 1957 Despite the failure of the EDC and EPC, the six founding members soon tried again to further their integration. The next major milestone was the founding of the (EEC) and the (Euratom), both through the of 1957 (implemented , ). The purpose of the EEC was to establish a among the six founding members, based on the "four freedoms": freedom of movement of goods, services, capital and people. Euratom was created to pool the non-military nuclear resources of the states. Of the three institutions now extant - the ECSC, the EEC, and Euratom - the EEC was by far the most important, so much so that it was later renamed simply the (EC). The growth of these European Communities into what is currently the European Union can be said to consist of two parallel processes -- first their structural evolution and institutional change into a tighter bloc with more competences given to the supranational level, which can be called the process of or the deepening of the Union. The other is the enlargement of the European Communities (and later European Union) from 6 to 27 member states, which is also called the widening of the Union.

Europe After the First World War

02/05/07 0 comments
Following the catastrophe of the , some thinkers and visionaries again began to float the idea of a politically unified Europe. In 1923, the Count founded the and hosted the First Congress, held in in 1926. In 1929, , prime minister, gave a speech in the presence of the Assembly in which he proposed the idea of a of European nations based on solidarity and in the pursuit of economic prosperity and political and social co-operation. Many eminent economists, among them , supported this view. At the League's request Briand presented a Memorandum on the organisation of a system of European Federal Union in 1930. In 1931 the French politician published the book The United States of Europe. The , the rise of and subsequently prevented this inter war movement gaining further support.